Collarless circularly magnetized torque transducer having two phase shaft and method for measuring torque using same

ABSTRACT

A magnetoelastic torque sensor for providing an output signal indicative of the torque applied to a member about an axially extending axis of the member, comprising, a member which is unitary and of generally homogeneous chemical composition, the member comprising separate magnetically active and magnetically substantially passive regions. A first magnetoelastically active region in the member is magnetically polarized in a single circumferential direction and possesses sufficient magnetic anisotropy to return the magnetization in the region, following the application of torque to the member, to the single circumferential direction when the applied torque is reduced to zero, whereby the magnetoelastically active region produces a magnetic field varying with the torque. Magnetic field sensors are mounted proximate to the magnetoelastically active region and oriented with respect thereto to sense the magnitude of the magnetic field at the sensors and provide the output signal in response thereto. The magnetoelastically active region of the member is formed of a polycrystalline material wherein at least 50% of the distribution of local magnetizations lie within a 90° quadrant symmetrically disposed around the single circular direction and has a coercivity sufficiently high to prevent irreversible loss of the magnitude of the circumferential polarization.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the priority of U.S. provisional applicationSerial No. 60/064,831, filed Oct. 21, 1997.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to torque sensors and, more particularly.To non-contacting magnetoeleastic torque sensors for providing a measureof the torque applied to a shaft.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

In the control of systems having rotating drive shafts, torque and speedare the fundamental parameters of interest. Therefore, the sensing andmeasurement of torque in an accurate, reliable and inexpensive mannerhas been a primary objective of workers for several decades.

Previously, torque measurement was accomplished using contact-typesensors directly attached to the shaft. One such sensor is a "straingauge" type torque detection apparatus, in which one or more straingauges are directly attached to the outer peripheral surface of theshaft and a change in resistance caused by strain is measured by abridge circuit or other well known means. However, contact-type sensorsare relatively unstable and of limited reliability due to the directcontact with the rotating shaft. In addition, they are very expensiveand are thus commercially impractical for competitive use in many of theapplications, such as automotive steering systems, for which torquesensors are now being sought.

Subsequently, non-contact torque sensors of the magnetostrictive typewere developed for use with rotating shafts. For example, U.S. Pat. No.4,896,544 to Garshelis discloses a sensor comprising a torque carryingmember, with an appropriately ferromagnetic and magnetostrictivesurface, two axially distinct circumferential bands within the memberthat are endowed with respectively symmetrical, helically directedresidual stress induced magnetic anisotropy, and a magneticdiscriminator device for detecting, without contacting the torquedmember, differences in the response of the two bands to equeal, axialmagnetizing forces. Most typically, magnetization and sensing areaccomplished by providing a pair of excitation or magnetizing coilsoverlying and surrounding the bands, with the coils connected in seriesand driven by alternating current. Torque is sensed using a pair ofoppositely connected sensing coils for measuring a difference signalresulting from the fluxes of the two bands. Unfortunately, providingsufficient space for the requisite excitation and sensing coils on andaround the device on which the sensor is used has created practicalproblems in applications where space is at a premium. Also, such sensorsappear to be impractically expensive for use on highly cost-competitivedevices, such as in automotive applications.

More recently, torque transducers based on measuring the field arisingfrom the torque induced tilting of initially circumferential remanentmagnetizations have been developed which, preferably, utilize a thinwall ring ("collar") serving as the field generating element. See, forexample, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,351,555 and 5,520,059 to Garshelis. Tensile"hoop" stress in the ring, associated with the means of its attachmentto the shaft carrying the torque being measured establishes a dominant,circumferentially directed, uniaxial anisotropy. Upon the application oftorsional stress to the shaft, the magnetization reorients and becomesincreasingly helical as torsional stress increases. The helicalmagnetization resulting from torsion has both a circumferentialcomponent and an axial component, the magnitude of the axial componentdepending entirely on the torsion. One or more magnetic field vectorsensors sense the magnitude and polarity of the field arising, as aresult of the applied torque, in the space about the transducer andprovides a signal output reflecting the magnitude of the torque. Thestability of this transducer's "torque-to-field" transfer function underrigorous conditions of use reflects the efficacy of uniaxial anisotropyin stabilizing circular polarizations. This anisotropy, together withthe spatially closed nature of the quiescent polarization, is also thebasis of a striking immunity from polarization loss in relatively largefields. While the fields that arise from the ring itself have only hardaxis components relative to the anisotropy, "parasitic" fields frompermeable material that is close enough to become magnetized by the ringfield have no such limitation. The addition of such parasitic fields tothe torque dependent field from the ring can seriously degrade the nearideal features of the transfer function. As a result, in order to avoida major source of such distortion, either the underlying shaft, or asleeve that is placed between the shaft and the ring, is generallyfabricated from a paramagnetic material. In addition, inasmuch as thepeak allowable torque in a ring sensor is limited by slippage at thering/shaft interface, concerns have been expressed regarding distortionarising from slippage at the ring/shaft interface under conditions oftorque overload. This need for multiple parts of different materials,together with the requirement that the methods and details of theirassembly establish both a rigid, slip-free mechanical unit and a desiredmagnetic anisotropy, have encouraged the investigation of alternativeconstructions.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to provide amagnetoelastic torque transducer in which the active, torque sensingregion is formed directly on the shaft itself, rather than on a separateferromagnetic element which then has to be affixed to the shaft.

It is another object of the invention to provide a magnetoelastic torquetransducer in which the peak allowable torque is determined by thestrength of the shaft material itself, rather than by slippage at anactive element/shaft interface as in prior art sensors.

It is yet another object of the invention to provide a magnetoelastictorque transducer which depends upon the magnetocrystalline anisotropyof the shaft itself as the primary source of anisotropy for returningthe magnetization to its previously established circumferentialdirection when the torque is reduced to zero, rather than upontechniques for instilling uniaxial magnetic anisotropy in the active,torque sensing region of a separate ferromagnetic element.

It is still another object of the invention to provide a collarlessmagnetoelastic torque transducer which depends for its operation on thesensing of a quantity that is inherently zero when the torque beingmeasured is zero and which changes in both direction and magnitude in acorrelative manner with the torque being measured.

It is yet another object of the invention to provide a magnetoelastictorque transducer which requires no external exciting field for itsoperation and which requires neither exciting currents nor coils.

A further object of the invention is to provide a magnetoelastic torquetransducer including a unitary shaft of generally homogeneous chemicalcomposition throughout comprising separate active and passive regionshaving magnetic properties appropriate for its respective function.

A still further object of the invention is to provide a non-contactmethod for measuring torque comprising the steps of providing a torquedmember having a transducing region, magnetically polarizing the regionin a single circumferential direction, the region possessing sufficientmagnetic anisotropy to return the magnetization in the region, followingthe application of torque to the member, to the single circumferentialdirection when the applied torque is reduced to zero, whereby atransducing region field arises which varies in response to torque onthe member, and measuring a component of field output of the transduceras an indication of torque on the torqued member, the torqued memberbeing formed of a polycrystalline material wherein at least 50% of thedistribution of local magnetizations lie within a 90° quadrantsymmetrically disposed around the direction of circular remanence andhaving a coercivity sufficiently high that the transducing region fielddoes not create parasitic magnetic fields in proximate regions of themember of sufficient strength to destroy the usefulness, for torquesensing purposes, of the net magnetic field seen by the field measuringapparatus.

Still another object of the invention is to provide a method for makinga magnetoelastic torque transducer including a unitary shaft ofgenerally homogeneous chemical composition throughout comprisingseparate active and passive regions having magnetic propertiesappropriate for its respective function by subjecting the appropriateregions of the shaft to thermal phase transformation processes,mechanical phase transformation processes, or combinations of thermaland mechanical phase transformation processes to obtain the respectivelydesired metallurgical phase in each such region in order to endow eachsuch region with magnetic properties appropriate for its respectivefunction.

These objects and others are achieved by providing a torque sensorcomprising a magnetoelastically active region on a torqued shaft, and amagnetic field sensor, such as a Hall effect sensor, responsive to thetransducing region field which arises as a result of the application oftorque to the magnetoelastically active region. In the preferredembodiment, the magnetoelasically active region is polarized in a singlecircumferential direction and possesses sufficient magnetic anisotropyto return the magnetization in the region, following the application oftorque to the member, to the single circumferential direction when theapplied torque is reduced to zero, the torqued shaft being formed of apolycrystalline material wherein at least 50% of the distribution oflocal magnetizations lie within a 90° quadrant symmetrically disposedaround the direction of magnetic polarization and having a coercivitysufficiently high that the transducing region field does not createparasitic magnetic fields in proximate regions of the shaft ofsufficient strength to destroy the usefulness, for torque sensingpurposes, of the net magnetic field seen by the magnetic field sensor.In particularly preferred embodiments the shaft is formed of a randomlyoriented, polycrystalline material having cubic symmetry and thecoercivity is greater than 15, desirably greater than 20 and,preferably, greater than 35.

In another embodiment of the invention these and other objects areachieved by providing a torque sensor including a unitary shaft ofgenerally homogeneous chemical composition throughout comprisingseparate active and passive regions having magnetic propertiesappropriate for its respective function. Such a torque sensor is made bysubjecting the appropriate regions of the shaft to thermal phasetransformation processes, mechanical phase transformation processes, orcombinations of thermal and mechanical phase transformation processes toobtain the respectively desired metallurgical phase in each such regionin order to endow each such region with magnetic properties appropriatefor its respective function.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1(a) is an assembly drawing showing the torque sensor of thepresent invention including an active region ABC having adjacent,oppositely polarized, magnetically contiguous circumferential regionsformed on a solid shaft.

FIG. 1(b) shows the sensor of FIG. 1(a) utilizing a hollow rather than asolid shaft.

FIG. 1(c) shows the sensor of FIG. 1(a) having an increased diametershaft portion on which the active region is formed.

FIG. 1(d) shows the sensor of FIG. 1(a) including an active region ABhaving only a single direction of polarization.

FIG. 1(e) shows the sensor of FIG. 1(a) having a reduced diameter shaftportion on which the active region is formed.

FIG. 1(f) shows the sensor of FIG. 1(e) except that the reduced diameteractive region is on a separate shaft.

FIG. 1(g) shows the sensor of FIG. 1(a) including an active region ABCDhaving three adjacent, oppositely polarized magnetically contiguouscircumferential regions.

FIG. 2(a) is a graphical illustration of a typical "major" hysteresisloop.

FIG. 2(b) is a graphical illustration of a typical "minor" hysteresisloop.

FIG. 3 illustrates front and side elevational views of a typicalarrangement of a shaft and polarizing magnets for simultaneouslycreating two polarized regions.

FIG. 4 is a graphical representation of the relationship between thestrength of the polarizing magnets and the sensitivity of the resultingsensor.

FIG. 5 is a graphical representation of the relationship between therelative radial magnetic field intensity arising as a result of theapplication of torque and the axial position along the active region ofthe shaft.

FIG. 6 is a graphical representation of the transfer function of acollarless torque sensor made from High Speed Steel material showing therelationship between applied torque and radial field intensity.

FIG. 7 is an assembly drawing of a torque sensor of the presentinvention showing, on the shaft, a central active region formed of aferromagnetic, magnetostrictive material and passive regions formed of alow permeability material.

FIG. 8 illustrates one method of making the sensor of FIG. 7.

FIG. 9 is a graphical representation of the relationship between coldworking roll separation and the sensitivity of the resulting sensor.

FIG. 10 is a graphical representation of the relationship between theduration of cold work rolling and the sensitivity of the resultingsensor.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

In the past few years an increased interest has developed in non-contacttype, magnetoelastic torque sensor comprising a shaft, amagnetoelastically active element endowed with uniaxial magneticanisotropy having the circumferential direction as the easy axis andmagnetically polarized in a circumferential direction on the surface ofthe shaft and a magnetic field sensor for sensing the magnitude of themagnetic field arising as a result of the application of torque to theshaft. It has thus far been most desirable to utilize a physicallyseparate part, e.g., a ring or "collar", to perform the active elementfunction. In such a sensor, the uniaxial magnetic anisotropy istypically developed as a result of "hoop stress" arising from aninterference fit between the shaft and the ring. In accordance with thepresent invention, it has been found that, in lieu of creating aring/shaft interface, with its attendant problems, a polycrystallineshaft wherein a preponderance of the distribution of localmagnetizations is confined to lie within a 90° quadrant symmetricallydisposed around the direction of circular remanence will exhibitsufficient magnetic anisotropy in the circumferential direction to giverise to a sensible magnetic field upon the application of torque to theshaft. It, therefore, appears that by careful selection of aferromagnetic shaft material an active region can be created directly onthe shaft merely by appropriate circumferential polarization. It isclear, however, that adequately active regions cannot be created on justany ferromagnetic shaft. In this connection, the significant concernsare stability, linearity and hysteresis.

Stability, linearity and hysteresis are not fully independentcharacteristics of a torque transducer. For example, the presence ofhysteresis is an obviously limiting factor on linearity. Moreover, sincethe presence of hysteresis signifies that irreversible magnetizationaltering processes are at work, the question of whether the transferfunction associated with a novel torque excursion will be preciselyrepeated at the hundredth repetition of the same excursion is not knownuntil tried. In general, the change from one stable hysteresis loop toanother is progressive (a process called "reptation"). It is clearlydesirable to avoid or at least minimize irreversible magnetizationprocesses. Irreversible magnetization alteration occurs, for the mostpart, by either (or both) of two processes: domain wall motion andvector rotation from one easy axis to another. Since the anisotropiesthat are present in any practical material are sufficiently large, andsince easy axes will have substantially larger angular separations thanthe tilt angles that occur with normally experienced torsional stresses(e.g., 90° compared to <10°), vector rotation does not appear to be asignificant threat as a potential source of irreversibility in thetransfer function although vector rotation between easy axes that arenearly equidistant from the circumferential direction may be operativeduring initial torque cycling. Thus if there is a significant amount ofhysteresis or reptation in the transducer transfer function, the culpritwill more likely be found to be domain wall motion.

The influence of domain wall motion on sensor operation and how to avoidits adverse effects will become apparent after identifying and examiningthose characteristics of a shaft that are active in the operation, andultimately the performance, of a collarless torque sensor. Thesecharacteristics include size and shape features of the active andadjoining regions in addition to a variety of material properties. Aswill be seen, the performance of the torque sensor is dependent oninterrelationships among several of these characteristics as well as onthe magnitude of certain specific properties. The schematic illustrationof the basic construction of a collarless torque sensor shown in FIG.1(a), together with the description which follows should help make thisclear.

Referring first to FIG. 1(a), a torque sensor according to the presentinvention is shown generally at 2. Torque sensor 2 comprises transducer4 and magnetic field vector sensor 6. Transducer 4 comprises one or moreaxially distinct, magnetically contiguous, oppositely polarizedcircumferential bands or regions 8, 10 solely defining the active ortransducer region of the shaft 12. Region 14 of the shaft to the left ofA and region 16 to the right of B are distinguishable from the activeregion only by the absence of any significant remanent magnetization.Shaft 12 is typically formed of a ferromagnetic, magnetostrictivematerial having a particularly desirable crystalline structure, as willbe discussed more fully hereinafter, such that the active region will,likewise, be formed of ferromagnetic, magnetostrictive material havingthe desired crystalline structure. Torque 20 is applied at one portionof shaft 12 and is transmitted thereby to another portion of the shaftwhere the motion of shaft 12 due to torque 20 performs some useful work.Torque 20 is shown as being in a clockwise direction looking at thevisible end of shaft 12, but obviously can be applied to rotate or tendto rotate the shaft in either or both directions depending on the natureof the machine incorporating shaft 12.

Transducer 4 is magnetically polarized in a substantially purelycircumferential direction, as taught in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,351,555 and5,520,059, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein byreference, at least to the extent that, in the absence of torque 20 (ina quiescent state), it has no net magnetization component in thedirection of axis 11 and has no net radial magnetization components. Theclosed cylindrical shape of transducer 4 enhances the stability of thepolarization by providing a complete circuit.

As will be seen, due to the construction, material selection andprocessing of transducer 4, application of torsional stress to shaft 12causes reorientation of the polarized magnetization in transducer 4. Thepolarized magnetization becomes increasingly helical as torsional stressincreases. The helicity of the magnetization in transducer 4 depends onthe magnitude of the transmitted torque 20 and the chirality isdependent on the directionality of the transmitted torque and themagnetoelastic characteristics of transducer 4. The helicalmagnetization resulting from torsion of transducer 4 has both acircumferential component and an axial component along axis 11. Ofparticular importance is that the magnitude of the axial componentdepends entirely on the torsion in transducer 4.

Magnetic field vector sensor 6 is a magnetic field vector sensing devicelocated and oriented relative to transducer 4 so as to sense themagnitude and polarity of the field arising in the space abouttransducer 4 as a result of the reorientation of the polarizedmagnetization from the quiescent circumferential direction to a more orless steep helical direction. Magnetic field vector sensor 6 provides asignal output reflecting the magnitude of torque 20. In a preferredembodiment, magnetic field vector sensor 6 is an integrated circuit Halleffect sensor. Wires 24 connect magnetic field vector sensor 6 to asource of direct current power, and transmit the signal output ofmagnetic field vector sensor 6 to a receiving device (not shown), suchas a control or monitoring circuit for the machine or systemincorporating shaft 12. A more detailed discussion of the types,characteristics, positioning and functioning of magnetic field vectorsensors appears in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,351,555 at columns 6-9 and 5,520,059at columns 7-11 and 25, the disclosures of which are incorporated hereinby reference.

The two circumferentially polarized regions 8,10 together constitute thetransducer's active region 4. The field sensor shown is centered on the"wall" between the two oppositely polarized regions and is oriented tosense the radial field at this location. One or more magnetic fieldsensors may be utilized. In general, each such sensor would be locatednear the active region and oriented such that it is maximally efficientat sensing the field that arises when the shaft is transmitting torque.The similarity between this transducer and the more conventional designof U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,351,555 and 5,520,059 employing an active regionendowed with uniaxial circumferential anisotropy ("ring sensor") isobvious. Some of the differences are equally obvious, others are moresubtle:

1. The active region in this basic collarless design is defined solelyby the existence of the remanent magnetizations indicated. Portions ofthe shaft to the left of A and to the right of B are distinguishablefrom the portion between A and B only by the absence (in such portions)of any appreciable remanent magnetizations. Thus, except for secondaryreasons associated with other shaft functions, or to visually identifythe active region, or to optimize some feature of the transducerperformance, neither the chemical composition, metallurgical condition,diameter, surface treatment or finish of the shaft between A and C isdifferent from portions to the left of A or to the right of C. While thedual active region, i.e., two magnetically contiguous, oppositelypolarized circumferential rings, is the preferred arrangement inconnection with the present invention (as compared to a single polarizedregion as in U.S. Pat. No. 5,351,555), the reasons for the preferencehave more to do with obtaining the sharply defined magnetizationgradient at B (hence a strong divergence when these magnetizations aretilted under torsion) than to avoid the ambiguous effects of ambientaxial fields at the less sharply defined borders between circularlymagnetized and non-remanently magnetized regions at A and C. In thisconnection, note that if A and C represent the ends of an active regionhaving a single direction of circular remanence, the axial componentwhen tilted by an axial field, is more or less matched by the axialcomponent that develops within the unpolarized regions to the left of Aand to the right of C. Thus, unless the active region is near an end ofthe shaft, axial fields cause little divergence in the axialmagnetization, hence little "signal" field. Torsional stress on theother hand, while also causing the circular remanence to develop anaxial component, does not alter the axial component of magnetizationwithin the non-magnetized regions of the shaft. Hence, there is adivergence of this component and an external field thereby arises. Thisdivergence is reduced from that which occurs at B in the dual regionconfiguration, not only because the polarity of the remanence reversesat B, but because the polarizing process results in a more diffusegradient in remanence at A and C. In this connection, it may in fact bedesirable to deliberately diffuse the "edges" of the circular remanenceat A and C in order to reduce the field intensity in these regionsthereby reducing the effects of these fields on nearby shaft material.

2. Since the active (field generating) region is an integral part of ahomogeneous shaft, the shaft material must be ferromagnetic. The higherthe saturation magnetization the greater the potential for generating atorque dependent magnetic field. Plain and low alloy carbon steels havesaturation magnetizations in the same range as elemental iron (4πM_(s)=21,600 Gauss=2.16 Tesla). Alloying usually reduces M_(s) about inproportion to the percentage of non-ferromagnetic alloying elements.Nickel in small quantities has little effect, cobalt raises M_(s). Somehigh strength steels are highly alloyed, having combined non-ironconstituents as high as 30%. Nevertheless any of the ferromagneticsteels that might be used for shafts will undoubtedly have M_(s) within20% of that of iron. Hence the actual value of M_(s) of the specificshaft material has limited independent impact on the performance of thetorque transducer.

3. The active region, hence the shaft itself must be magnetostrictive.The product of magnetostiction λ and the torsional principal stress Cprovides the magnetoelastic anisotropic influence that is fundamental tothe operation of the transducer. As in the torque sensor of U.S. Pat.No. 5,351,555, it is this anisotropy that biases the easy axis in oneaxial direction or the other, thereby creating the magnetizationdivergence that is the source of the signal field. The individualcrystallites that make up the polycrystalline materials from which theshafts are fabricated rarely have isotropic magnetostrictions. In iron,λ is particularly anisotropic, even to the extent that it varies in signaccording to the direction in which the crystal is magnetized. Forexample, when an ideally demagnetized single crystal of iron ismagnetized parallel to a cube edge, its length in that directionincreases 20 ppm; when magnetized parallel to a cube diagonal, itdecreases its length in that direction by 21 ppm. In the language ofmagneticians, λ₁₀₀ =20 ppm and λ₁₁₁ =-21 ppm. Small percentages (≈3%) ofsome alloying elements, e.g., Ni and Si, reduce the absolute value ofλ₁₁₁ resulting in a more isotropic magnetostriction.) There are twopoints to be remembered here. Firstly, it should be realized that thereare no domain walls in the remanent condition, or, if any 90° walls haveformed as a result of internal fields, that they are effectively pinned.Secondly, since the quiescent magnetization is along easy axes (e.g., in<100> directions in typical steel shafts), it must be rotated away fromthese easy axes by the magnetoelastic anisotropy λσ. It is, in theinterest of a linear transfer function, desirable for the magnetoelasticenergy to stay in direct proportion to the torque (i.e., to σ). Hence,it is desirable for λ to stay constant as the magnetization vectors arerotated away from the quiescent easy axes by λσ. In some crystals,depending on their orientation, rotation towards the +σ direction willbring the vector closer to the <111> direction, hence, if λ₁₁₁ isnegative, there will, between the <100> and the <111> directions, be acompensation point where λσ=0 for any value of σ. In pure iron andsteels with very low alloy content, even <110> is negative so it is notpossible with these materials to avoid this undesirable condition forany crystal orientation. This is why Ni and Si are desirable alloyingelements.

4. The active region, hence the shaft itself must possess some source ofanisotropy to return the magnetization to the established (during thepolarization process) circumferential direction when the torque isreduced to zero. To ensure a symmetrical response to CW and CCW torques,the distribution of this quiescent anisotropy should be symmetricalabout the circumferential direction. To ensure that the magnetoelasticanisotropy associated with the torque causes all of the remanentlymagnetized portions of the shaft to contribute cooperatively in thedevelopment of an axial component, the quiescent anisotropy shouldnowhere depart more than 45° from the circumferential direction. Statedotherwise, the need for anisotropy is an expression of the need toconfine the circular remanence within the circumferentially oriented 90°quadrant. Satisfactory performance is obtainable if at least 50% of thelocal magnetizations lie within the 90° quadrant which is symmetricallydisposed around the direction of the circular remanence. If thequiescent anisotropy has as its principal source the magnetocrystallineanisotropy associated with the atomic arrangements of a latticedstructure possessing multiaxial symmetry, e.g., a randomly orientedpolycrystalline material wherein each crystallite has cubic symmetry(including distorted cubic, e.g., tetragonal) with <100> or <111> easyaxes, the quiescent circumferential remanence in more than 50% of thecrystallites will automatically meet this "45°" requirement. Themagnetocrystalline anisotropy in iron and all common steels have suchcubic symmetry and thus (based solely on this requirement) are allcandidate materials for collarless torque transducers. The magnitude ofthe anisotropy of pure iron is generally reduced by common alloyingelements, although tungsten and, to a lesser extent, manganese cause itto rise. Molybdenum, vanadium and tin cause relatively small downwardchanges, while chromium is slightly less sluggish in causing theanisotropy to decrease from that of pure Fe. Sufficient quantities ofNi, Co, Si or Al can drive the anisotropy to zero (and below). Incollarless torque transducers we are concerned about the absolutemagnitude of the crystal (short for magnetocrystalline) anisotropy beingtoo low, since this is the "spring" that returns the magnetization toits quiescent circumferential direction when the torque is removed. Thusfor example, if the crystal anisotropy (K₁) is smaller than λσ_(r),where σ_(r) is the magnitude of residual stresses associated with priorprocessing of the shaft, then K₁ is no longer the principal anisotropyand more than 50% of the quiescent remanence may no longer meet the 45°distribution requirement. Here is the first glimpse of the importance ofinterrelationships between the several material properties that areindividually important to the operation of the transducer. While K₁ andλ are compositionally dependent (intrinsic) properties, σ_(r) and otherstructure dependent properties (e.g., textures, chemical or structuralordering) act in concert with the intrinsic properties to determine themagnitude, orientation and symmetry of quiescent anisotropies. Also,while small amounts of Ni or Si effectively raise λ, they also tend toreduce K₁. Thus in selecting the appropriate alloy for the shaft, wehave to carefully moderate alloy content.

5. While it should, by now, be recognized that in the present inventionthe shaft itself must be ferromagnetic, magnetostrictive and provide thenecessary magnitude and orientation distribution of magnetic anisotropy,the response of the shaft magnetization to magnetic fields has not, thusfar, been considered. Ferromagnetic materials are readily characterizedby the magnitude of the magnetization changes induced by magnetic fieldsand the magnitude of the fields required to induce significantmagnetization changes. Since these characteristics are not single valuedfunctions of one variable, they are conveniently described by a plot ofmagnetization M vs field H as H is cyclically varied over a symmetricalbipolar range. The salient features of such a major hysteresis loop areindicated in FIG. 2(a), discussed more fully hereinafter, wherein thevarious slopes and intercepts are variable from one material to another,the slopes represent local susceptibilities, the intercepts on the yaxis are the remanent magnetization and on the x axis, the coerciveforce.

The changing slopes over the various portions of the hysteresis loopreflect the different processes involved in the magnetization changesthat take place in fields of different intensities. Our concern forthese details is not merely academic since, in the operation of thecollarless torque transducer, magnetic fields arise from the activeregion and these fields pervade not only the space in which the fieldsensor(s) is located but also the space occupied by the shaft itself.The magnetization changes caused to take place within non-activeportions of the shaft results in other fields arising and these(parasitic) fields also pervade the regions of space where our fieldsensor(s) are located. Thus, in the interest of not corrupting thetransfer function of the active region, it is important that theparasitic fields be very small, ideally zero, in comparison with theactive region field or, if of significant intensity, that they changelinearly and an hysteretically (or not at all) with applied torque, andthat they be stable with time and under any of the operational andenvironmental conditions that the shaft might be subjected to. Statedotherwise, any parasitic fields which arise must be sufficiently smallcompared to the active region field that the net field seen by themagnetic field sensors is useful for torque sensing purposes. Since theparasitic fields have as a source the magnetization within thenon-active portions of the shaft, it is clearly desirable for suchmagnetization to be kept small, or if of significant magnitude, that itchanges little under the action of the fields generated by the activeregion (and other ambient or accidentally imposed fields). Smallmagnetizations can be assured if M_(s) is small or if the susceptibility(χ=ΔM/ΔH), or its close relative, permeability (μ=χ+1) is small. It isclearly not possible (in this basic collarless design) for M_(s) to besmall since a large M_(s) is preferred for the active region. Thus, inorder to minimize the corrupting influence of parasitic fields, it isimportant to utilize a shaft material having small χ in any value offield to which it might be exposed. The value of χ depends on whetherthe magnetization change is primarily due to vector rotation or motionof domain walls. Vector rotation is resisted by the anisotropy, whereasdomain wall motion is resisted by heterogeneity. Coercivity provides ameasure of the difficulty experienced by the field in altering themagnetization. The coercive field H_(c) is defined as the fieldintensity required to reduce the remanent magnetization (themagnetization that remains after having been exposed to a saturatingfield) to zero. Thus at H_(c), 50% of the magnetization has beenreversed. If the magnetization reversal is taking place solely by vectorrotation, H_(c) (for such processes H_(c) is also called the criticalfield), in materials composed of randomly oriented crystallites havingcubic symmetry with K₁ >0, is equal to 2K₁ /M_(s). For iron, with K₁=450,000 ergs/cm³ and 4πM_(s) =21,600 Gauss, H_(c) for vector rotationis 524 Oe. Measured values of H_(c) for plain carbon and low alloysteels are typically in the range of 5 to 50 Oe (even lower for annealediron) depending on the alloy content and thermal or mechanicaltreatments. Thus it is clear that the principal process by whichmagnetization is altered in these materials is not vector rotation but,rather, is domain wall motion. It is also clear that a material havingH_(c) =50 Oe is better for use in a collarless torque sensor than one inwhich H_(c) =5 Oe. Correspondingly, still higher values of H_(c), e.g.524 Oe, would still be better. In any one steel, H_(c) may be increasedby a factor of 5 or more by cold work or by heat treatment. H_(c) isgenerally higher when in the mechanically hardest (strongest) condition.This follows from the fact that strength reflects the presence ofimpediments to the flow (glide) of one layer of atoms over anotherwithin the crystal (dislocations, voids, inclusions, precipitates,lattice distortions due to interstitial atoms, stress, etc.) and H_(c)reflects the pinning effect on domain walls of these sameinhomogeneities in the crystal structure.

The contradictory, often opposite, effects of the various material andmagnetic parameters, as illustrated by the foregoing, present a dilemmain the design of collarless torque transducers. In the interest ofhaving the torque develop magnetic fields of sufficient amplitude to bereadily sensed by economical field sensing devices, and to besubstantially larger than usually encountered ambient fields, it isdesirable that the active region produce fields as large as possible(favor high λ/K₁, high M_(s)). Yet if these fields are of sufficientintensity to cause significant changes in the magnetization within theactive region, the transfer function will not be stable at high torquelevels (favor high K₁ /λ, low M_(s)). If these fields are of sufficientintensity in portions of the shaft that are proximate to the activeregion, the resulting parasitic fields can corrupt the transfer functionof the transducer in ways (hysteresis, instability and non-linearity)that diminish or destroy the usefulness of the device (favor low M_(s),λ and χ, high H_(c) and K₁). The problems can be immediately alleviatedif domain walls can be pinned sufficiently securely to raise the actualH_(c) closer to the limit established by the anisotropy. While primarilya materials problem, the selection of a shaft material, the processesused to fabricate the shaft and its subsequent thermal and mechanicaltreatments are usually made to best fulfill the primary shaft function,i.e., the transmission of torque, with little concern for whether thesefactors satisfy the preferences for torque sensing.

It should be emphasized that all of the foregoing discussion pertains tothe basic or simplest collarless design illustrated in FIG. 1(a). Aswill become clear from a consideration of other embodiments of thepresent invention, to be described hereinafter, there is nothing in theconcept of a collarless design that forbids alteration of the activeregion (or of the nonactive portions of the shaft) in such a manner asto obtain better combinations of the significant properties than existin other portions of the shaft. Thus, it is not essential to the conceptof a collarless transducer that the presence of a remanent magnetizationbe the sole characteristic that distinguishes the active region fromadjoining regions of the shaft. Various local treatments and othermodifications are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,391,555, columns 4-15,and are incorporated herein by reference.

Other variations from the basic collarless design would seem, on thebasis of our present understanding, to lead to performance improvement.For example, with reference to FIG. 1(c), if the shaft were increased indiameter over a limited axial extent, that was then circumferentiallymagnetized (i.e., the active region is on a shoulder), the intensity ofthe signal field in the (now not so) proximate portions of the shaftwould be reduced even if the active region produced the same field perunit torque as the single diameter basic design of FIG. 1(a). Moreover,the field sensor(s) would now be further from the source of parasiticfields.

As previously mentioned, it may prove beneficial to "taper" thecircumferential magnetization, thereby diffusing the A and C edges ofthe active region shown in FIG. 1(a). The purpose here is to reduceparasitic fields from the inactive portions of the shaft, both byreducing the intensity of the signal field in these portions (whichreduces the magnetization of these portions) and by reducing theintensity of the torque dependent fields which would arise from theseportions when magnetized by the signal field. This approach may bereadily implemented by tapering the proximity to the active region orstrength of the magnets used to create the polarizations which form theactive region.

Hollow, through hardened shafts, such as in FIG. 1(b), would appear tobe better than solid or case hardened shafts for several reasons. Ahollow shaft is more uniformly stressed by torsion than a solid shaft,thus all of the cross section can contribute to the signal field.Creating a circular remanence throughout a solid shaft is not possible.Even approximating this in a large diameter shaft becomes impracticallydifficult. Even if circular magnetization were attainable, the centralregions of the shaft would contribute little to the signal field sincethey are so lightly stressed. Moreover these central regions become"proximate permeable material" and might well be a source of parasiticfields, thereby diminishing rather than contributing to the performanceof the torque transducer. This potentially negative property of solidshafts would, in general, be exacerbated since, even in through hardenedshafts (wherein the hardness results from quenching), the centralregions are generally not as hard as the surface regions and thus willhave a lower H_(c). For these reasons through hardening would appear tobe more desirable than case hardening. On the other hand, surfacehardening by nitriding might be beneficial since it can further raisethe hardness of some steels thereby probably also raising H_(c).Cryogenic treatments are also known to substantially increase thehardness of commonly used (case hardened) shaft materials (e.g., fromRockwell 60 to 64 for 8620 and from R55 to R 62 for 4320). Suchtreatments may also raise H_(c).

FIG. 1(d) illustrates the same sensor as in FIG. 1(a) except that theactive region is polarized in only a single direction. This constructionis suitable for solid or hollow shafts but not good for shoulderedshafts since the end regions (A and B) would develop poles in an axialmagnetic field. It has been found that the placement of a second sensorat the right end of the active region (shown in phantom) helps reducesensitivity to ambient fields in the diametral direction.

FIG. 1(e) illustrates the same sensor as in FIG. 1(a) except that thediameter of the shaft in the active region is reduced from that of themain shaft. In this configuration, the magnetic "poles" that form at Aand C when the shaft is carrying torque are less effective inmagnetizing the larger volume of material in the adjoining regions. Thiswill reduce the intensity of the parasitc fields contributed by theseregions. This construction also allows the field sensor(s) to be locatedradially inward from the surfaces of the larger diameter sections, tolocations where the intensity of the parasitic fields is reduced. Aswith the shouldered design of FIG. 1(d), this construction is notsuitable for use with a single polarized region.

FIG. 1(f) illustrates the same sensor as in FIG. 1(e) except that theactive region is now formed on a separate shaft. While shown as having areduced diameter over its entire length, the section of thismagnetoelastically active shaft between A and C may in fact have thesame or a larger diameter than the Main Shaft sections to which it isattached (which need not have the same diameter at each end). The activeshaft may be rigidly attached to the Main Shafts by interference fits,pinning, welding, screw threads or the like. The Main Shafts arepreferably made of non-ferromagnetic material, e.g., stainless steel,aluminum brass, fiberglass, plastic, etc., but may also be made of lowpermeability ferromagnetic material, preferably having a lowmagnetostriction, e.g., hardened, plain carbon steel, and are incapableof creating significant parasitic fields. The active shaft may be hollowor solid and is circumferentially polarized only between AB and BC.Since the AA' and BB' regions also carry smaller percentages of thetorque, their contributions to parasitic fields is minimal. Also thoseportions of the active shaft not in the active region are not readilyaccessible to local sources of possibly disturbing fields such asmagnetized tools (screw drivers, wrenches, etc.).

FIG. 1(g) illustrates the same sensor as in FIG. 1(a) except with three(3) circumferentially polarized regions and 2 large divergence "domainwalls" (at B and C). The increased field intensity therebetween alsoenables the use of a single axially oriented field sensor (shown inphantom) in lieu of two field sensors, one at each domain wall.

FIG. 2(a) illustrates the shape and salient features of a typical"major" hysteresis loop, i.e., one wherein the limiting fields aresufficient for the magnetization to show signs of approachingsaturation. This is evidenced by the flattening of the loop extrema andthe narrowing of the difference in magnetizations between ascending anddescending "limbs" of the loop. Hysteresis loops effectively representdynamic phenomena; they are traversed in a counterclockwisedirection--up and to the right, down and to the left, etc. For the majorloop shown here it should be apparent that further increases in thefield beyond ±100 Oe will not raise the peak magnetizationssignificantly above ±18 kG. When the field is reduced to zero afterhaving reached these "technical saturation" values, the magnetization"falls back" to a value indicated as R (or R' for fields of the oppositepolarity). R and R' represent the "remanent" magnetization. The value ofR in the loop shown is 15.8 kG. The "remanence ratio," i.e., the ratioof the remanent magnetization to the peak magnetization, for this loopis (15.8/18)=0.878. In a material having uniaxial anisotropy in thefield direction, the remanence ratio would be equal to 1.00, its highestpossible value. If the field direction is normal to the anisotropy insuch a material, the remanence ratio would be zero, its lowest possiblevalue. In a material having a random orientation of cubic crystalliteswith easy axes along the cube edges, this ratio would be 0.8312. If theeasy axes were along cube diagonals, the remanence ratio would be 0.866.The relatively high remanence ratio of the loop shown in FIG. 2(a)indicates that the crystallites are either not randomly oriented or thatsome other anisotropic influence is also present. In either case,hysteresis loops for other field directions would generally exhibitlarger or smaller (different) remanence ratios.

The value of the field where the magnetization is reduced to zero(points C and C'), is the "coercive field". The coercive field generallyincreases with increasing peak field excursions, reaching a maximumvalue (called the "coercive force") at saturation. The coercive field inthe loop shown is 30 Oe, a value only minimally smaller than thecoercive force of the hypothetical material exhibiting the indicatedloop. If the magnetization reversal between R and C' was by coherentrotation (in each domain) of the local moments against a crystalanisotropy of 400,000 ergs/cm³ (a typical value for low alloy steels),the coercive force would be 2×400,000/(18,000/4π)=559 Oe, nearly 19times the observed value. Thus, if the loop shown is for a material ofthis type (e.g., low alloy steel), magnetization reversal clearly occursprimarily by domain wall displacement rather than by coherent rotation.

A and A' in FIG. 2(a) indicate the extrema of a "minor" hysteresis loop,i.e., one in which the peak field excursions are significantly less thanthe coercive force. An enlarged view of this minor loop is shown in FIG.2(b). While both the remanence and coercive field of this loop are seento be quite small, they are not zero. Hence, even for small excursionsof an applied field, the resulting magnetization alterations are seen toinclude some irreversibility. The smaller the field excursion of a minorloop, relative to the coercive force, the smaller are these irreversiblefeatures. For very small (relative) field excursions the "loop" narrowsto a straight line through AA'. In any case the slope of the straightline through AA' of minor loops is known as the reversiblesusceptibility (χ_(rev)). In a magnetized specimen, the value of χ_(rev)changes little (perhaps over a range of ±15%) at any point on the majorloop within the coercive field. While minor loops for uniaxial materialexhibit neither remanence nor coercivity they generally exhibit a finiteχ_(rev) in fields normal to the anisotropy and zero χ_(rev) (forperfectly uniform and coherent anisotropy) in fields parallel to theanisotropy axis.

The fact that most materials exhibit finite χ_(rev), remanence andcoercivity, even in small fields, is clearly pertinent to the operationof collarless torque transducers. By virtue of their finite χ_(rev),regions of the shaft that are exposed to the fields which are generatedby the active region when torque is applied to the shaft develop amagnetization. Within the active region itself, these fields are called"demagnetizing" fields since they act in a direction tending to opposethe tilting of the quiescent circular magnetization. Since such fieldscan never be stronger than their causative agents, their action issimply to reduce the effect of torque, i.e., they reduce the potentialsensitivity of the transducer. By virtue of the finite remanence andcoercivity of the shaft material, the reactive magnetization in thenon-active regions varies in an hysteretic fashion with the appliedtorque. Since the causative fields also fall off with distance from theactive region, these reactive magnetizations are not uniform. Neitherare they circumferentially directed. Moreover, since the shaft materialis magnetostrictive, the magnetization within the reactively magnetizedregions will vary with the applied torque. As a result, these previouslypassive, newly magnetized regions themselves contribute field componentsin the space within and around the shaft. The net field seen by thefield sensors (i.e., the signal field) is thus the resultant of thepurposeful field from the active region and the parasitic fields fromthe reactive regions. Not surprisingly, the desirably linear andnon-hysteretic transfer function of the transducer can be corrupted bythe inevitable presence, in collarless designs, of proximatemagnetizable material. The desirability of keeping coercivity highshould now be clear.

Operation of the transducer requires that the shaft "surface" beremanently magnetized in a circumferential direction. Material that isnot circumferentially magnetized can become reactively magnetized andthus become a source of parasitic fields. Although deeper, in terms ofdepth of magnetization, appears, therefore, to be better, two factorsmitigate the need for circumferentially magnetizing the entire shaftcross section. Firstly, the reduction in torsional shear stress withincreasing distance from the surface reduces the relative potentialcontribution to the signal field from the more central regions of theshaft cross section. Secondly, even if these deeper regions developeduseful field intensities at their location, their contribution to thefield intensity at the field sensor location (some distance radiallyoutward from the shaft surface) would be substantially reduced. Thesesame factors reduce the capability of deeply interior,non-circumferentially magnetized regions to produce significantlytroublesome parasitic fields at "distant" field sensors. The firstfactor limits the depth of circumferential magnetization required insmall shafts to perhaps 50% of the radius. The second factor indicatesthat even in very large shafts, circumferential magnetization deeperthan 10-20 mm would provide little benefit. In many hollow shafts,penetrations to such depths would reach to the inside surface. Thiswould be a desirable condition for hollow shafts, especially for thinwall hollow shafts, since they are made hollow in order to moreefficiently use the available material strength and to reduce weight. Ifall of the shaft cross section is transmitting useful torque, it wouldmake sense to have all of the cross section contribute to signal fieldrather than have some of it detract from the signal field and thencontribute to the parasitic fields. As a practical matter, however, itis extremely difficult to magnetize to a depth greater than about 1-2mm, even on large diameter shafts, because it is difficult to generate astrong enough magnetic field so far from the magnetic field source.

Considering the available means for creating circumferentialmagnetization, the non-necessity of polarizing the entire cross sectionis fortuitous. Methods and procedures for polarizing are described inU.S. Pat. Nos. 5,351,555, columns 13-14 and 5,520,059, columns 15-16 and26-28 as well as in J. Appl. Phys. 79 (8), 4756, 1996, the disclosuresof which are incorporated herein by reference. Creating the activeregion in collarless torque transducers requires two additionalconsiderations. Firstly since the active region is generally of limitedaxial extent and is to be located at some desirable axial position alongthe shaft, methods involving the conduction of electrical currentsthrough the entire shaft or through coaxial conductors passing throughhollow shafts are unsuitable. While various configurations for passingelectrical currents through limited and well defined axial lengths arepossible, these would have restricted applicability and offer norecognizable advantage. Polarization by rotation through the stronggradient field of proximate, permanent or electro-magnets is the greatlypreferred method since the same polarizing equipment and process can beused for a wide range of shaft diameters and materials. The axial lengthof the active region and its axial location can, by this method, beprecisely controlled. Secondly, the polarization of collarless torquetransducers will require much stronger magnetizing fields than thepolarization of conventional "ring on shaft" designs. This followsdirectly from comparisons of the major hysteresis loops of materialsthat are respectively suited for each design and from considering thatthe penetration of the magnetizing field in collarless designs will ingeneral be greater than thin ring designs for the same size shaft andthat interior regions of the shafts used in collarless designsinherently have higher permeabilities than the shafts used with ringdesigns. Proximate permeable material tends to "short circuit" the fluxfrom the polarizing magnets, thereby diminishing the effectivelyavailable field intensity. However stated, the result is thesame--permeable material between the source magnet and the targetshields the target from the field of the magnet. In this case thesurface regions shield the interior regions thereby limitingpolarization depth. As shown in IEEE Trans. Mag 28 (5), 2202, 1992 (FIG.5) and in FIG. 5 of the above referenced J. Appl. Phys. paper, majorloops of rings under hoop stress are square (uniaxial anisotropy) andtypically show coercive fields of just a few Oersteds. On the otherhand, major loops of collarless torque transducer shaft materials willshow more rounded features (random cubic anisotropy) and exhibitcoercivities greater than about 15 Oersteds. Coercivities of 35 or morewould be preferred. Since it is the reverse field "lobes" of the fieldfrom the magnetizing magnet that do the polarizing and since theintensity of these lobes is only about 20% of the direct field lobe, andalso since "technical saturation" (required to maximize the remanence)requires fields of at least 2 times the coercive force of the shaftmaterial, and, finally, since a large coercive force is better tominimize parasitic fields and maximize stability, the need for strongpolarizing magnets for collarless designs is clear. With hollow shaftsof large enough diameter, it might be advantageous, in regard toobtaining a uniform, full depth polarization of the active region, toemploy cooperating internal and external polarizing magnets. A typicalarrangement of shaft and polarizing magnets is illustrated in FIG. 3which shows an arrangement of polarizing magnets and shaft forsimultaneously creating two (2) magnetically contiguous polarizedregions, as in the collarless design illustrated in FIG. 1(a). Thenumber of sources of polarizing fields will in general be the same asthe number of polarized regions being created.

In the simplest embodiment, the polarizing magnets would consisttypically of high energy (e.g., samarium-cobalt or neodymium-iron-boron)permanent magnets held close to the shaft surface while the shaft isrotated on its axis in either direction. With shafts of highercoercivity, soft magnetic "pole pieces" may desirably be fitted to eachpermanent magnet and be appropriately shaped and spaced to mostefficiently utilize the available magnet mmf (to drive magnetic fluxthrough the shaft). FIG. 3 shows two such polarizing magnets, "1" and"2", having respectively opposite polarities and axially spaced apartsome small distance. The bold arrows on the shaft indicate thedirections of the resulting circumferential remanent magnetizations,i.e., the polarized regions, which together constitute the active regionof the transducer. The lines normal to the shaft axis are theprojections of the borders of these polarized regions. It is to be notedthat the width (the axial extent) of these regions exceeds somewhat thewidth of the polarizing magnets. The shaded portion between the twooppositely polarized regions represents a sub-region within which theremanent magnetization undergoes a transition from one circulardirection to the other. The width of this transition region can be madeas large as one pleases merely by increasing the separation of the twopolarizing magnets. While the width of the transition zone can bedecreased by decreasing this separation distance, there is a minimumseparating distance beyond which the transition zone will get nosmaller. It should be apparent that as magnets 1 and 2 get closer toeach other, their respective fields each weaken the other. When theybecome close enough to touch, there are no longer North and South polesat their interface, hence there will be some distance along the magnetsthemselves before there will be adequate field intensity in thecircumferential direction to polarize the shaft. The minimum width ofthis transition region is dependent on the effective strength of thepolarizng magnets and the coercive force of the shaft material,decreasing with increases in the former and increasing with increases inthe latter. The optimum width of the transition zone will depend on thetype, size and orientation of the field sensor(s) used to detect thetorque dependent field. In the event that it is desired to obtain atransition zone that is narrower than can be obtained with polarizingmagnets 1 and 2 when in their side by side positions, angulardisplacement about the shaft axis, of one magnet relative to the other,will provide the separation needed to reduce their mutually weakeninginteraction. In FIG. 3, the extreme separation of 180° is illustratedfor convenience. Instead of magnet 2 being alongside magnet 1, it is nowrotated to the position illustrated in phantom and indicated as magnet2'. It might also be possible to magnetize one region at a time, i.e.,rotate the shaft with only magnet 1 in place, then, remove magnet 1 androtate the shaft with magnet 2 in place. In all schemes using permanentmagnets, the magnets will need to be moved away from their positionsclose to the shaft (alternatively, a "keeper" may be slid between thepoles of each) before shaft rotation ceases. Electromagnets may beadvantageously used for polarizing since their "strength" is adjustableand they may be effectively "shut off" without physical movement ofeither magnets or keepers.

An example of the dependence of torque transducer performance (asmeasured by sensitivity, i.e., field per unit torque) on the "strength"of the polarizing magnets (as measured by the magnetomotive force (mmf)and magnetic circuit reluctance) is indicated in FIG. 4. Immediatelyapparent in this Figure is the complete absence of a torque dependentfield for magnetizing currents below about 1.5 A. This demonstrates theneed for the effective field to reach some critical intensity before theshaft material develops any significant circumferential remanence. Thiscritical intensity is related to the coercive force of the shaftmaterial since the intensity of the reverse field lobes must approachthe coercivity of the shaft material, in this case 44 Oe, in order todevelop significant remanence. Stated otherwise, the field must getintense enough for large scale "depinning" of the domain walls. As themagnetizing current is increased above the threshold value (in thisinstance above 1.5 A), the sensitivity is seen to grow continuously.While the growth in sensitivity with increasing current is rapid atfirst, it soon diminishes, showing signs of eventually reaching amaximum value. Examination of the two data points at 12 and 15 A withzero spacing between the magnets and the shaft, shows that theanticipated saturation of the sensitivity attainable with the 0.25 mmgap is more an artifact of the apparatus than of the true saturation ofthe shaft remanence. These two data points illustrate both thedifficulty in reaching a saturated value of sensitivity and theimportance of minimizing reluctance in the magnetizing circuit. Thetransfer function depicted here is the combined result of the followinginteractive properties and phenomena:

1. the growth in coercive field with peak magnetization;

2. the coercive force of the shaft material;

3. the radially inward penetration of the critical field amplitude withmmf;

4. the diminishing shear stress with distance from the surface;

5. the diminishing axial magnetization with distance from the surface;

6. the diminishing field per unit torque from these inner regions;

7. the growing distance of the field sensor from ever more inward fieldsources;

8. the reduction in transition zone width with increasing polarizingfield intensity;

9. the non-linearity (saturation) of the polarizing field withincreasing current.

Once an active region is created by local circumferentialpolarization(s), the shaft may be properly characterized as a torquetransducer. The active region will preferably be comprised of dualpolarizations. While in usual embodiments, the tilting of the remanentmagnetization that results from the application of torque is sensed by aproximate device that is responsive to the intensity of some componentof the magnetic field resulting from such magnetization tilt, changes inthe axial component of the remanent magnetization associated with suchtilting can also be sensed by the voltage (emf) induced in a coilencircling the shaft and centered over a circumferentially polarizedregion. The axial component of magnetization (proportional to thetorque) can be recovered by integrating the induced emf with time. Inthe present state of electronic technology no completely driftlessintegrating means exist, although low drift over the short term--in theorder of several seconds to several minutes--is achievable.Nevertheless, in applications where the torque of interest only existsfor short periods, e.g., in pulse and impulse tools, this is a viablesensing arrangement, especially in constructions having just a singlepolarization in the active region.

FIG. 5 illustrates the manner in which the relative radial fieldintensity (arising with the application of torque) varies with axialposition along the active region of a polarized shaft with polarizationat the highest attainable sensitivity shown in FIG. 4. The general shapeof this field distribution is consistent with the approximatelyquadripolar field expected from two adjacent regions having oppositelydirected axial magnetizations. For example, this is the shape of thefield distribution that would be seen in the space around two coaxialbar magnets placed with like poles abutting. Detailed examination ofthis Figure shows features that reflect both the physical arrangement ofthe polarizing apparatus and the magnetic properties of the shaftmaterial. For example, it will be observed that the central peak is inreality two peaks with a small valley in-between. This is the kind offield distribution that one would expect from the two bar magnets iftheir like poles are somewhat separated. It is, therefore, a clearindication of the presence of a transition zone having a significantwidth. The inequality of the height of the two peaks probably representsslight differences in the two polarizing magnets. As was seen in FIG. 4,small changes in the distance between the magnet pole pieces and theshaft can significantly affect the sensitivity. A small non-parallelismbetween the magnet surfaces and the shaft would prevent both of themagnets used to obtain this data from being at precisely the samedistance from the shaft or having the full width of each actuallyrubbing against the shaft. Since the width of the space between themagnets used to obtain this data was 2.5 mm, about the same as the axialseparation of the peaks, the relative width of the transition zone andmagnet separation indicated in FIG. 3 (wherein the transition zone isnarrower than the magnet separation) is clearly not a general result.From what has already been stated it should be obvious that thetransition zone can be wider than this spacing. On the other hand, whenit is noticed that the distance between the smaller (reverse polarity)peaks at just under ±15 mm overhangs the overall magnet dimension of27.5 mm, it should be apparent that for widely separated magnets(wherein the polarized region will overhang the magnet width at bothends), the transition zone may well be narrower than the magnetspacing.) With this understanding of the polarizing process, thecontribution of item 8, above, to the observed slow approach to asaturated value of sensitivity may now be appreciated. A field sensorlocated at the geometric center of the space between the magnets willindicate an increase in sensitivity as the depth of the valley betweenthe peaks decreases.

The dual peaks and imperfect symmetry of the curve shown in FIG. 5represent just one experimental result. In some applications it may bedesirable to have a single sharp central peak, while in otherapplications, a broad, relatively flat central peak would be moredesirable (for example to reduce the variation in sensitivity to axial"play" in the shaft). In general, and also to simplify explanations ofthe device, a symmetrical curve with a single central peak would bepreferable. On the other hand, there may be specific applications wheretwo, several or many, single polarized regions might advantageously bedistributed along a shaft. In effect such a shaft would contain morethan one active region, having for various special purposes, either thesame or oppositely directed circumferential polarizations. Thedistinguishing characteristic of such multiple region arrangements isthat the fields that arise from each such region are, in proximatespace, independent of each other. A plot such as that shown in FIG. 5would then show symmetrical positive and negative peaks (of equalamplitude) at or near the ends of each polarized region. It should beclear that, in transducers having more than one polarized region, it istransition zone width that establishes the difference incharacterization of the active regions as single multiple, or multiplesingle, polarized regions.

A related issue that needs to be briefly addressed is the influence ofthe axial extent of the active region on the torque transducerperformance. The dimensions of the active region require considerationfrom two concerns. First, of course, is the question of how much spaceis available on the shaft for implementation of the torque sensingfunction. If, in a specific application, this space is severely limited,either by virtue of the proximity of non-related magnetizable material,e.g., ball bearings, gears, etc., this becomes the overridingconsideration. If as much space as desired is available, the dimensionsof the active region will generally be chosen to attain some desiredsensitivity (i.e., signal field per unit torque). The goal here is notsimply to maximize the field intensity at the peak value of appliedtorque but rather it is to attain a field intensity that is congruouswith the preferred type and orientation of magnetic field (or axialmagnetization component) sensor(s). Too high a signal field can not onlysaturate some types of field sensors, but may also magnetize nearbyferromagnetic material in machine parts serving functions unrelated totorque sensing. Since the signal field intensity is the product of ademagnetizing factor (which decreases with length of active region) andthe axial component of magnetization (which increases with length ofactive region), the length of the active region is not a sensitivedeterminant of field intensity. Thus, if a whole family of torquetransducers having widely varying torque ranges (i.e., of various shaftdiameters) is to be constructed, it may well be advantageous to use anactive region having the same dimensions for all in order to allow thesame field sensor design to be employed with all. In terms of shaftdiameter, a useful range of dimensions may be some integral multiple,e.g., four (4) times the diameter for small shafts in the 3 mm diameterrange, to one (1) times the diameter for shafts in the 20 mm diameterrange, to 0.3 times the diameter for shafts in the 100 mm diameterrange. It is probably a useful estimate to consider that the length ofthe active region will be between 5 and 100 mm for shafts between 1 and1000 mm in diameter. The axial extent of the active region isdetermined, for the most part, by practical considerations such as theregion must be long enough to develop a practically useful field andappropriately sized so as to be sensed by commercially available,practically useful magnetic vector sensors. In the event that theeffective ends of such regions are deliberately made to be diffuse, the"dimensions" of the active region become even less of an issue. Designexpediency is the major consideration in determining the dimensions andaxial location(s) of the active region(s). In general, it will bepreferable to locate active regions on areas of the shaft that aresufficiently distant from its ends to be unaffected by magnetizationsarising from ambient, incidental or accidental magnetic field sources.

As already indicated it is necessary for the shaft to have anappropriate combination of mechanical, magnetic and magnetoelasticproperties in order that it can function as a useful collarless torquetransducer. Suitable combinations of properties are found in manycommonly available steels. Several "permanent magnet" alloys that alsoposses adequate combinations of strength and ductility are alsosuitable, although their limited commercial availability and relativelyhigh cost will restrict their use to special applications. Obtaining therequired combination of mechanical and magnetic properties is as much afunction of metallurgical condition as it is of chemical composition;hence the chosen shaft material will almost certainly be subjected tosome form of heat (and/or mechanical) treatment. This will often consistof heating to an appropriate temperature and cooling at a controlledrate (e.g., air, oil or water quenching) followed by a reheating to alower temperature and more slowly cooled (tempering--also "aging" toprecipitate intermetallic compounds). Cryogenic processes may be foundappropriate to optimize and/or stabilize the obtained properties. In anycase, the goal of all such treatments is to simultaneously strengthenthe material mechanically (raise its yield strength) and "harden" itmagnetically (raise its coercive force). In general it will be foundthat the material in its final condition should have a coercive force(H_(c)) preferably higher than 15 Oe, more desirably higher than 20 Oe,preferably higher than 35 Oe and, ideally, higher (when measured in thedirection of that field) than the largest magnetic field intensity thatwill arise with the application of the maximum expected torque.

Examples of the categories of materials that have been found suitablefor collarless torque transducers are shown below. Typical grades ineach category are indicated.

1. Martensitic Stainless Steels (preferably air hardened)

AISI/SAE Grades: 403, 410, 414, 416, 420, 431, 440A, 440B, 440C

2. Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels (chromium and nickel)

AISI/SAE Grades: 15-5PH, 17-4PH, 17-7PH, PH 13-8Mo

3. Alloy Steels (quenched and tempered--sometimes carburized ornitrided)

AISI/SAE Grades: 4140, 4320, 4330, 4340, 4820, 9310

Typical Designations: 300M, Aermet 100, 98BV40, 9-4-20, 9-4-30

4. Tool Steels (preferably quenched and tempered, metallurgically"clean" high alloy steels)

AISI Grades: Types A, D, H, L, M, O, T, W and high cobalt high speedtool steels

5. Maraging Steels (high nickel, low carbon)

Typical Designations: 18 Ni 250, C-250, Vascomax T-300, NiMark, Marvac736

6. Ductile Permanent Magnet Materials

Typical Designations: Vicalloy, Remendur, Cunife, Cunico, Vacozet

7. Magnet Steels

Typical Designations: KS Steel, MT Steel, 3.6% Cr, 15% Co, TungstenSteel

8. Specialized Alloys and Other Materials

Typical Designations: Permendur, Alfer, Alfenol, Kovar, Hard DrawnNickel, Hard Drawn Permalloy

The presently attainable performance of collarless torque transducersfalls short of that obtainable with ring on shaft constructions.Hysteresis in the transfer function is the primary source of imperfectperformance. Nevertheless, presently attainable performance iscompletely satisfactory for many applications. Moreover, since a widerange of hysteresis has been observed (different materials, varying heattreatments), including both positive and negative values, it is clearthat performance will be improved with further development. The transferfunction of an experimental collarless torque transducer made from thesame type and size of High Speed Steel material as was used to obtainthe data shown in FIGS. 4 and 5 is shown in FIG. 6. Other than for theobvious presence of hysteresis, the transfer function of this transduceris seen to exhibit excellent linearity. No significant changes were seenin the regression line when the loading was increased to ±50 N.m. Thetransfer function from other experimental transducers (generally madefrom materials having lower coercivities) showed both higher values ofhysteresis and signs of saturation (diminishing slopes at the highesttorque levels).

It has been made clear throughout the description of the presentinvention that it is desirable to avoid entirely or at least minimizethe presence of permeable magnetizable material near the active regionof the transducer. In the ring on shaft sensors of U.S. Pat. No.5,351,555, this is usually accomplished by using shafts of lowpermeability material or by spatial separation, e.g., by means of anintervening low permeability sleeve, of the "ring" from a shaft that hasa higher than desired permeability. With collarless designs, the desiredlow permeability of proximate material is realized by using shaftmaterials having relatively high coercivities, sometimes together withgeometric isolation of the active region from adjoining shaft portions.The essential feature of successful collarless constructions is that themagnitude of the field created by the torque is too small to causesignificant irreversible magnetization changes in regions of the shaftproximate to the active region.

One further practical requirement of circularly magnetized torquetransducers is that the one or more active region(s) each haveidentifiable locations on the shaft as well as effective axial extentsthat are shorter than the end to end length of the shaft. In the ring onshaft sensors of U.S. Pat. No. 5,351,555, the physical dimensions of thering limit the axial extent of the active region and, since the activeregion(s) are obviously limited to lie within the ring dimensions, theirposition on the shaft is automatically established by the ring location.In collarless designs, both the axial extent and the axial location ofthe active region(s) are established as details of the instilledcircumferential remanent magnetizations, with or without cooperativegeometric features.

There is yet another construction for collarless torque sensors whichsubstantially avoids the development of parasitic fields in shaftmaterial proximate to the active region. According to this construction,the presence of magnetizable material near the active region(s) isavoided and fixed active region size(s) and location(s) are establishedby utilizing the unique properties of certain selected shaft materials.Suitable materials will be capable of existing in either of two (ormore) different, stable (over the required operating temperature rangeof the transducer) metallurgical phases. One such phase will besufficiently ferromagnetic and magnetostrictive to fulfill active regionrequirements and another will have sufficiently low permeability to beeffectively non-magnetizable, hence to fulfill substantially passiveregion requirements. The term "substantially passive" as used hereinmeans regions which, when subjected to magnetic fields, do not becomesufficiently magnetized so as to give rise to parasitic magnetic fieldswhich are of sufficient strength to destroy the usefulness, for torquesensing purposes, of the net magnetic field seen by the magnetic fieldsensors. If these phases can be established at will by appropriateprocessing, it should be clear that both active and substantiallypassive regions, each of desired size and location, can be made tocoexist on the same shaft. A torque transducer is then created simply byinstilling a circumferential remanent magnetization (i.e., bypolarizing) appropriate portions of the active region(s) in the desiredcircular sense(s). It is, of course, desirable that the anisotropy thatmaintains these polarizations limit the remanent magnetization to liewithin 45° of the circumferential direction. Uniaxial anisotropy, suchas is instilled in the rings of ring on shaft sensors, in this directionis obviously most desirable. Also desirable is the magnetocrystallineanisotropy associated with the atomic arrangements of a latticedstructure possessing multiaxial symmetry, e.g., a cubic structure havingbcc crystal structure, which characterizes the shaft materials selectedfor collarless sensor constructions. Notwithstanding that the activeregion will, desirably, be flanked by substntially passive regions, itis important for the coercivity of the active region to remain high.This is to prevent the field arising as a result of the applied torquefrom causing irreversible loss of the magnitude of circumferentialpolarization in the active region. As with the previously describedembodiment of the present invention, a coercivity greater than 15 isdesirable, greater than 20 is particularly desirable and greater than 35is preferred. The basic construction of a shaft metallurgicallyprocessed for use as a torque transducer is shown in connection with thesensor of FIG. 7 which illustrates a single piece shaft processed tohave an isolated ferromagnetic, magnetostrictive region (theMagnetizable Active Region) of desired axial dimension and position.Though physically of one piece, and generally of homogeneous chemicalcomposition throughout, the shaft is comprised of separate active andsubstantially passive regions each having magnetic propertiesappropriate for its respective function.

Many solid materials can exist in more than one structural form, acharacteristic called polymorphism. Each distinct polymorphic (orallotropic) form constitutes a phase. Transformation from one phase toanother is a common occurrence in metallic materials. Phase changes atcharacteristic temperatures during either cooling or heating are foundto occur in many pure metals and also in alloys. The criticaltemperature range during which a phase transformation takes place varieswith metal composition, from temperatures near the melting point totemperatures near absolute zero. Some phase transformations occurisothermally over a period of time, although the precise final phasewill more often depend on the rate of cooling (or of heating) through acritical temperature range. In some alloys, a phase transformation whichwould normally occur during cooling, can also be induced by mechanicalmeans to occur at temperatures far above that required by cooling alone.Efficacious processes include plastic deformation, shock waves andsometimes even simple hydrostatic pressure. Transformations that willnot occur at all during cooling, even to temperatures near absolutezero, often can be made to occur at higher temperatures by suchmechanical means. The extent of the transformation that can be inducedby such cold work varies with composition, degree of deformation andwith rate of deformation. Thermally induced phase transformations of amaterial that has been cold worked often occur at different temperaturesthan for non deformed material of the same composition. In many ironrich (ferrous) alloys, the various phases which are stable over theoperating temperature range of most machinery (from -50° C. to +150° C.)include a full spectrum of magnetic characterizations. Thus, a singlealloy can stably exist in a phase which is ferromagnetic, paramagnetic(or even antiferromagnetic) depending on its history of thermal andmechanical treatment. It is even possible for distinct coexistingferromagnetic phases to differ significantly in their respectivemagnetic and magnetoelastic properties. The different phases of any onematerial most often also have different densities, electricalresistivities, elastic moduli and other physical properties.

Regardless of the specific alloy used and whether the phasetransformations are to be induced solely by thermal processes, solely bymechanical processes, or by combinations of both thermal and mechanicalprocesses, the general method of processing a shaft will involvesubjecting the active and substantially passive regions to the differentprocessing conditions required to obtain the respectively desired phasein each such region. Thus, at least one of the processing steps will belocalized to one but not the other of these shaft regions.

Subjecting a local region to some types of mechanical deformation isreadily accomplished. For some processes such as forging, swaging,knurling, surface rolling and the like, the location on the shaft andthe axial extent of the processed region is readily controlled by thesize and position of the associated tooling. Localized shock waves arereadily initiated by wrapping the desired region(s) of the shaft withsuitable explosives. Even axial tension or compression can be localizedby means of appropriate clamping devices.

Limiting various temperature excursions to local regions requiresjudicious use of focused energy sources, thermal insulation and localcontact with heated or cooled surfaces. These techniques may be usedseparately or in combination during one or more processing steps. Thebasic idea is illustrated by the specific example shown in FIG. 8 whichillustrates a shaft heated by the passage of an electrical current. Theshaft temperature in the central "chill" block area is maintained lowerthan in the unchilled end areas.

The size, shape and complexity of the "chill" block shown in this figurewill depend on the shaft size, the required temperature gradient betweenthe cooled and uncooled areas, and on the time that this gradient mustbe maintained. With small diameter shafts, or rapid thermal cycle times,a close fitting copper ring (perhaps even electroplated) might besufficient. The high electrical conductivity of copper would reduce theohmic heating of the enclosed shaft region. Long process times, largeshafts and/or large temperature gradients might require an active heatsink, e.g., forced air cooling of a finned block, or even a water orrefrigerant cooled block. It might also be desirable, in order to reducethe electrical power required as well as to maintain a more uniform andeasily controlled temperature, to insulate the unchilled shaft regionswith fiberglass, asbestos, or other materials having low thermalconductivities. The use of, and location of, insulation and heat sinkswill obviously depend on whether it is the active or passive regions ofthe shaft that requires the higher temperature treatment. Besides themethod illustrated in FIG. 8, many other means of selective heating (orcooling) are possible. Induction heating, radiant heating, partialimmersion in heated or cooled liquids and other means of transferringenergy into localized shaft regions are all potentially applicable.

Since the efficacy of plastic deformation in inducing phasetransformations is temperature dependent, local regions oftransformation will result simply by maintaining different portions ofthe shaft at different temperatures while the entire shaft is subjectedto more or less uniform plastic straining. In materials which undergostrain induced phase transformations, there is a temperature (generallyreferred to as M_(d)) above which no strain induced transformationoccurs. If the operating temperature range of the torque transducer isabove the temperature at which the strained material would undergo athermally induced phase transformation (called M_(s)), the two phasescreated by such thermomechanical processing will be stable. The choiceof process or processes from among the various thermal, mechanical andthermomechanical means for inducing phase transformations will clearlydepend on the peculiarities of each alloy system.

To be useful as a torque transducer, a candidate material must have onestable phase having adequate magnetic remanence, magnetostriction andcoercivity, and another stable phase that is no more than weaklyferromagnetic with low magnetostriction (within the range of magneticfields to which it might be exposed). Fortunately, there are a number ofwell known alloy systems that have such magnetically distinct, stablephases in the temperature range of interest. For example, it has beenfound that 18% Ni maraging steels can be thermally processed to variousmetallurgical conditions having vastly different magnetic andmagnetoelastic properties. In general, many highly alloyed iron richmaterials will be found to be thermally and/or mechanically processableto conditions having adequately distinct magnetic and magnetoelasticproperties to be potentially useful for constructing one piece torquetransducers. Some examples of known useful alloy systems are as follows:

1. Hadfield steel and variations thereof that rely on large additions ofMn (or some other elements or combinations of elements) to carbon steelsin order to stabilize the austenitic γ phase (that normally exists athigh temperatures) allowing it to exist at low temperatures. Austeniteis normally paramagnetic. At cryogenic temperatures some austenites areantiferromagnetic. Classical Hadfield steel consists of iron alloyedwith 12% Mn, 1.2% C. Transformation of the austenite to ferromagneticmartensite is accomplished by cold working at room temperature. Surfacerolling or other processes causing local deformation can be used tocreate an active surface region (process dependent depth) axially (andinternally) contiguous with non-magnetizable passive regions. In thisconnection, it is interesting to note that Hadfield steel has been usedfor more than a century for railroad rails where the hard, wearresistant martensite resulted from the rolling action of the trainwheels.

2. TRIP steels. These steels are generally warm worked (plasticallydeformed above the M_(d) temperature) to create a high density ofdislocations. The austrenitic structure is maintained at roomtemperature (and below). Any further plastic deformation below the M_(d)temperature results in the transformation to martensite. TRIP steels aregenerally complex alloys, often containing more than 30% of elementsother than iron. Since these elements (typically Cr, Co, Ni, Mo)generally contribute to the magnetostriction (and often lower thecrystal anisotropy) these alloys are magnetoelastically active.Moreover, having been developed for such demanding service as land mineresisting tank floor plates, they are exceptionally strong.

3. Common stainless steels of the 18-8 variety (18% Cr, 8% Ni) have anaustenitic crystal structure in the solution annealed condition.Depending on the exact alloy content, the crystal structure of many ofthe steels in this family will be converted to ferromagnetic martensiteby cryogenic treatment, by cold work or by combinations of theseprocesses. Generally those alloys having less total alloy content (e.g.,AISI 302) will more readily transform into martensite than those withhigher total alloy content (e.g., AISI 316). Some alloys of this kindare deliberately formulated to develop hard, wear resistant martensiteby surface working. These find application in construction equipment andagricultural tools.

4. Precipitation hardened stainless steels having sufficient chromiumand nickel to retain austenitic structures at room temperature can beconverted to martensite by aging treatments. During aging, precipitatesare formed which reduce the concentration of "austenitizing" elements.

5. Iron, nickel, carbon alloys having similar properties to Hadfieldsteel (although Ni is more expensive than Mn).

To demonstrate the manufacture of a collarless torque sensor by thismethod, test shafts were fabricated from stainless steel seamless tubing(AISI-304 having approximately 18% chromium and 8% nickel) having a 1/4"(6.35 mm) outside diameter. In the as-received annealed state, theseshafts were essentially non-ferromagnetic (permeability of no more than1.1). While rotating each shaft, it was forced between two hardenedsteel rollers having known roll separations for measured time durations.This treatment subjected the surface material to a periodic reversebending stress above its yield strength. Such plastic deformation causedthe austenite to convert to a ferromagnetic martensite (permeability inthe range from 10 to 100). This creates the active region of thetransducer. By axial movement of the shaft relative to the roller pair,an active region having an axial extent greater than the face width ofthe rollers can be created. Thereafter, the shafts were eachcircumferentially magnetized by rotation proximate to a pair ofoppositely polarized magnets to create a dual region transducer. Thetransducer was tested by measuring the radial field emerging from thecold worked zone as torque was applied to the shaft. The test resultsindicate that the sensitivity increases with decreasing roll separation(the smaller the roll separation greater the amount of cold work), seeFIG. 9, and with increased duration of rolling (the greater the rollingtime the greater the amount of cold work), see FIG. 10. These resultsare not surprising since more cold work means more martensite formation.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY

In addition to all of the usual applications for torque transducers,collarless designs are especially suited for a number of applicationareas and specific applications where the flexibility and economyassociated with its single piece construction and/or the commonchemistry of the active and inactive portions of the shaft is eitherdesirable or necessary. Some of these are described below.

1. Shafts exposed to corrosive environments.

High strength steels such as 18% Ni maraging steels are subject tostress corrosion cracking when stressed in tension and exposed to saltwater, especially hot, acidified, salt water. In conventional "ring onshaft" transducers, the installed ring is often under a substantialtensile hoop stress as a result of its attachment to the shaft via aninterference fit. Collarless designs have no ring, hence there are noregions of the shaft that are purposefully stressed in tension. In fact,it is not uncommon, in the interest of increasing fatigue strength, toshot peen, roll or otherwise treat the surfaces of high duty shafts inorder to instill residual compressive stresses. The single chemistry ofboth active and inactive regions also avoids the opportunity forgalvanic corrosion present when dissimilar metals in electrical contactare exposed to electrolytes.

2. Shafts carrying extreme torques.

The limiting torque of ring on shaft constructions is often determinedby the onset of interfacial slip between the ring and the underlyingshaft. The use of one piece, high strength steel shafts avoids thepossibility of such slippage.

3. Shafts operating at high or low temperature, or temperature variationextremes.

The use of one piece shafts avoids concerns for the relaxation ofcontact pressure (and associated hoop stress) at very low temperaturesdue to differential thermal expansions (contractions) of the ring andthe underlying shaft. Similarly it avoids concerns for the relaxation ofcontact pressure at very high temperatures due to creep (inelasticstrain associated with the reduction in the yield strengths of both theshaft and the ring and the increase in interference due to differencesin their thermal expansions.)

4. Shafts subject to recurrent removal or replacement. (Disposableshafts)

Torsion is often the primary loading mode on cutting tools such asdrills, taps, reamers, end mills, boring bars, etc. Tools of this kindare utilized in either of two modes: rotating tool or rotatingworkpiece. In either case, the torque transmitted through such toolsprovides an indication of their condition (sharpness, integrity, etc.)as well as the relative properties of the workpiece and operatingconditions (hardness, presence, presence and efficacy of coolants,lubricants, presence of flute clogging chips, etc.). Many cutting toolsare fabricated from high speed tool steels, a highly satisfactorymaterial for collarless torque transducer shafts. It is only necessarythat an active region be created in some available (exposed) shankportion (between the chuck or other driving or holding means and thecutting region) and that a suitable magnetic field sensing means beappropriately mounted. A system may be envisioned in which individualtools are polarized in some ad hoc fixture prior to their beinginstalled in the machine. Polarization may take place either immediatelyprior to such installation, or at some other convenient time duringtheir manufacture, sharpening or resharpening. In applications where thetool rotates it is also possible to include polarizing magnets withinthe field sensing assembly, thereby allowing for the use of tools havingno prior magnetic conditioning. Since chips are produced during use ofthese tools, some arrangements have to be made to prevent theirintrusion into the sensing assembly. Ring on shaft constructions arehardly compatible with most applications of this type, being moresuitable for transducers installed on the spindle (or other portion) ofthe machine tool. The advantage of having the torque transducer functiondirectly on the cutting tool is that it is automatically sized for thetorque range used by the actual tool rather than being sized for thelargest tool that might be used on the machine.

5. "Line" shafts where torque is variable with axial location.

It is sometimes desirable to be able to measure the torque beingtransmitted along several portions of one shaft. Such applications existwhere one shaft is used to drive a multiplicity of loads, or where thetorsional load is distributed continuously along the shaft length.Examples of the former are found in packaging and textile machinerywhere the driving torque applied to a shaft at one location drives anumber of gears, pulleys, sprockets, etc. at a number of spatiallyseparated locations. Web and sheet producing and handling machinesutilize rollers (i.e., shafts) having continuous (along their length)distributions of torque application. By readily allowing active regionsto be instilled at many different locations on a single shaft,collarless design provides a ready means to monitor, equalize orotherwise control the distribution of torque along such shafts.Installing a multiplicity of rings on a single shaft is, at the least, adifficult undertaking, especially if they are all to be the same size.

6. Very small or very large shafts. Shafts with large ends. Retrofittedmachinery.

Very small rings for use on very small shafts (e.g., 1 mm diameter) aredifficult to handle and to install using press fits. Operation of smallshafts at extreme speeds also requires precise balancing. Very largeshafts (either diameter or length) require large machinery for handlingand the possible use of large (and expensive) tools if the ring is to beaxially installed far from the shaft ends. Flanges, bearing journals orother enlarged sections that may exist between the desired transducerlocation and the shaft ends make it difficult or impossible to utilizering on shaft constructions. In-place machinery where the installationof rings (and perhaps isolating paramagnetic sleeves as well) is tooelaborate, expensive and/or time consuming an undertaking may beretrofitted with a torque transducing function simply by mounting fieldsensors in appropriate locations and polarizing the desired region withmagnets temporarily or permanently held in the required locations as theshaft rotates in its normal fashion. Ship propeller shafts, rolling millshafts, shafts on large motors, generators, pumps and gear boxes areexamples.

What is claimed is:
 1. A magnetoelastic torque sensor for providing anoutput signal indicative of the torque applied to a member about anaxially extending axis of said member, comprising:a member which isunitary and of generally homogeneous chemical composition throughout,said member comprising separate magnetically active and magneticallysubstantially passive regions; a first magnetoelastically active regionin said member, said region being magnetically polarized in a singlecircumferential direction and possessing sufficient magnetic anisotropyto return the magnetization in said region, following the application oftorque to said member, to said single cirumferential direction when theapplied torque is reduced to zero, whereby said magnetoelasticallyactive region produces a magnetic field varying with said torque;magnetic field sensor means mounted proximate to said magnetoelasticallyactive region and oriented with respect thereto to sense the magnitudeof the magnetic field at said sensor means and provide said outputsignal in response thereto; said magnetoelastically active region ofsaid member being formed of a polycrystalline material wherein at least50% of the distribution of local magnetizations lie within a 90°quadrant symmetrically disposed around said single circular directionand having a coercivity sufficiently high to prevent irreversible lossof the magnitude of the circumferential polarization.
 2. Amagnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed in claim 1, wherein saidmagnetically active regions comprise a first metallurgical phase andsaid magnetically substantially passive regions comprise at least onemetallurgical phase other than said first metallurgical phase.
 3. Amagnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed in claim 2, wherein said firstmetallurgical phase is sufficiently ferromagnetic and magnetostrictiveto fulfill the requirements of a magnetically active region and said atleast one metallurgical phase exhibits sufficiently low permeability tofulfill the requirements of a substantially passive region.
 4. Amagnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed in claim 3, wherein said memberis formed of a predominantly iron containing alloyed steel, saidmagnetically active regions comprise a martensitic phase and saidmagnetically substantially passive regions comprise an austenitic phase.5. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed in claim 3, wherein saidmember is formed of a steel selected from the group consisting ofHadfield steels, TRIP steels, 18-8 stainless steels and precipitationhardening stainless steels containing chromium and nickel.
 6. Amagnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed in claim 1, including at leastone additional axially distinct, circumferential magnetoelasticallyactive region which is magnetically contiguous with said first region,each additional region being polarized in a circumferential directionopposite to the polarization direction of magnetically contiguousmagnetoelastically active regions.
 7. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, asclaimed in claim 1, wherein said active regions of said member areformed of a polycrystalline material having cubic symmetry.
 8. Amagnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed in claim 1, wherein said memberis a solid, elongated shaft.
 9. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, asclaimed in claim 1, wherein said member is a hollow, elongated shaft.10. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed in claim 1, wherein saidmember is an elongated shaft having an axially extending enlargeddiameter portion intermediate its ends and said magnetoelasticallyactive region is formed on said enlarged diameter portion.
 11. Amagnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed in claim 1, wherein said memberis an elongated shaft having an axially extending reduced diameterportion intermediate its end portions and said magnetoelastically activeregion is formed on said reduced diameter portion.
 12. A magnetoelastictorque sensor, as claimed in claim 11, wherein said reduced diameterportion is a separate shaft which is rigidly attached to the largerdiameter end portions.
 13. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed inclaim 1, wherein the coercivity of said member is greater than 15 Oe.14. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed in claim 1, wherein thecoercivity of said member is greater than 20 Oe.
 15. A magnetoelastictorque sensor, as claimed in claim 1, wherein the coercivity of saidmember is greater than 35 Oe.
 16. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, asclaimed in claim 1, wherein said magnetic field sensor means comprises asolid state sensor.
 17. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed inclaim 16, wherein said magnetic field sensor means comprises aHall-effect sensor.
 18. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed inclaim 1, wherein said magnetic field sensor means is mounted andoriented with respect to said magnetoelastically active region to sensethe polarity of said magnetic field.
 19. A magnetoelastic torque sensor,as claimed in claim 18, wherein said magnetic field sensor means ismounted in a fixed position proximate to said magnetoelastically activeregion.
 20. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed in claim 18,wherein said sensor means is positioned proximate an end of said region.21. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, as claimed in claim 18, wherein saidsensor means comprises at least two sensors, at least one sensor beingpositioned proximate each end of said region.
 22. A magnetoelastictorque sensor, as claimed in claim 1, wherein said magnetoelasticallyactive region has, in the absence of torque applied to said member, acircumferential magnetic orientation having no net magnetizationcomponent in the axial direction.
 23. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, asclaimed in claim 22, wherein said magnetoelastically active region has,when torque is applied to said member, a helical magnetic orientationhaving both circumferential and axial components, said magnetic fieldsensor means being positioned and oriented for sensing the magneticfield arising from said axial components of magnetization.
 24. A methodof sensing a torque applied to a torqued member extending in an axialdirection, comprising the steps of:(a) providing a member which isunitary and of generally homogeneous chemical composition throughout,said member comprising separate magnetically active and magneticallysubstantially passive regions, a first magnetoelastically active regionin said member, said region being magnetically polarized in a singlecircumferential direction and possessing sufficient magnetic anisotropyto return the magnetization in said region, following the application oftorque to said member, to said single cirumferential direction when theapplied torque is reduced to zero, at least said magnetoelasticallyactive region of said member being formed of a polycrystalline materialwherein at least 50% of the distribution of local magnetizations liewithin a 90° quadrant symmetrically disposed around said single circulardirection and having a coercivity sufficiently high to preventirreversible loss of the magnitude of the circumferential polarization;(b) producing a magnetic field as a consequence of the application oftorque to said member; and (c) sensing the magnitude of the magneticfield at a position proximate to said magnetoelastically active regionas an indication of the magnitude of the torque applied to said member.25. A method, as claimed in claim 24, wherein said magnetically activeregions comprise a first metallurgical phase and said magneticallysubstantially passive regions comprise at least one metallurgical phaseother than said first metallurgical phase.
 26. A method, as claimed inclaim 25, wherein said first metallurgical phase is sufficientlyferromagnetic and magnetostrictive to fulfill the requirements of amagnetically active region and said at least one metallurgical phaseexhibits sufficiently low permeability to fulfill the requirements of asubstantially passive region.
 27. A magnetoelastic torque sensor, asclaimed in claim 26, wherein said member is formed of a predominantlyiron containing alloyed steel, said magnetically active regions comprisea martensitic phase and said magnetically substantially passive regionscomprise an austenitic phase.
 28. A method, as claimed in claim 24,wherein the application of torque to said member causes saidmagnetoelastically active region to have a helical magnetic orientationwith both circumferential and axial magnetization components and saidsensing step comprises sensing the magnetic field arising from saidaxial components of said magnetization.
 29. A method, as claimed inclaim 24, including the step of providing at least one additionalaxially distinct, circumferential magnetoelastically active region whichis magnetically contiguous with said first region, each additionalregion being polarized in a circumferential direction which is oppositefrom the polarization direction of magnetically contiguousmagnetoelastically active regions.
 30. A method, as claimed in claim 24,wherein said member is formed of a polycrystalline material having cubicsymmetry.
 31. A method, as claimed in claim 24, wherein the coercivityof said magnetoelastically active region is greater than
 15. 32. Amethod, as claimed in claim 24, wherein the sensing step is accomplishedat least in part by positioning a magnetic field sensing deviceproximate to and spaced from said magnetoelastically active region. 33.A method of producing a magnetoelastic torque transducer from a memberto which an axial torque is applied for producing a magnetic fieldvarying with said torque, the magnitude of said magnetic field beingsensed by magnetic field sensors for providing an output signalindicative of the applied torque, comprising the steps of:(a) providinga ferromagnetic, magnetostrictive unitary member which is of generallyhomogeneous chemical composition throughout; (b) inducing phasetransformations in said member by processes selected from the groupconsisting of thermal processes, mechanical processes and combinationsthereof for defining in said member separate magnetically active andmagnetically substantially passive regions; and (c) polarizing a finiteaxial extent of a first magnetoelastically active region in amagnetizing field in a single circumferential direction, said regionpossessing sufficient magnetic anisotropy to return the magnetization insaid region, following the application of torque to said member, to saidsingle circumferential direction when the applied torque is reduced tozero; (d) said member being formed of a polycrystalline material whereinat least 50% of the distribution of local magnetizations lie within a90° quadrant symmetrically disposed around said single circmferentialdirection and having a coercivity sufficiently high to preventirreversible loss of the magnitude of the circumferential polarization.34. A method, as claimed in claim 33, wherein said magnetically activeregions comprise a first metallurgical phase and said magneticallysubstantially passive regions comprise at least one metallurgical phaseother than said first metallurgical phase.
 35. A method, as claimed inclaim 34, wherein said first metallurgical phase is sufficientlyferromagnetic and magnetostrictive to fulfill the requirements of amagnetically active region and said at least one metallurgical phaseexhibits sufficiently low permeability to fulfill the requirements of asubstantially passive region.
 36. A method, as claimed in claim 35,wherein said member is formed of a predominantly iron containing alloyedsteel, said magnetically active regions comprise a martensitic phase andsaid magnetically substantially passive regions comprise an austeniticphase.
 37. A method, as claimed in claim 33, wherein said member has alongitudinal axis and said magnetic polarization is achieved by rotatingsaid transducer thereabout while being subjected to the magnetizingfield near two opposite magnetic poles.